Historical Context

In 1890, a man named Eugene Schieffelin brought the European Starlings to the United States of America as part of a plan to introduce every type of bird mentioned in Shakespeare’s works to the United States (Gup 1990). By releasing 60 starlings in 1890 in Central Part and 40 more in 1891, Schieffelin brought about the start of a century-long conflict that the country still grapples with today (Gup 1990). Although initially attracting little notice due to their small population, the adaptable starlings quickly reproduced and expanded across the continent, covering most, if not all, of North America by the mid 20^thcentury (Ehrlich et al. 1988). Ironically, the starlings' population in England, Shakespeare’s homeland, has declined greatly in recent years, as seen in Figure 1. This could be due to the fact that starlings have natural predators in England, where they evolved, as opposed to the United States where they were able to strive and quickly reproduce due to the lack of natural predators. In addition, the variety of their diets, aggressive nest-finding habits, early season breeding behavior, and large colonies (see Figure 2) all boosted the starling’ rise to dominance in North America. 

Figure 1. (Baillie et al. 2010) Shows an 85% decrease in starling population from 1966-2009. 

Figure 2.  (Holmes 2006) Shows a huge number of starlings travelling together in a colony.

Control efforts have been unsuccessful in curbing the massive expansion of the starling population. The Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food webpage describes the struggle, saying: “In the 1960’s in California over 9 million starlings were killed with no long term effect on the population. In another control attempt, one million were killed by spraying detergent on a major winter roost (the detergent destroys the insulating ability of the bird’s feathers). Again there was no long term effect on the local population and there was a rapid recovery in numbers at the roost” (Carter 2005). These controls are very expensive and sometimes dangerous to the nearby ecosystems. Today, there is an estimated 200,000,000 invasive starlings in North America that need to be dealt with (Carter 2005).

Works Cited:

Baillie, S.R., Marchant, J.H., Leech, D.I., Renwick, A.R., Joys, A.C., Noble, D.G., Barimore, C., Conway, G.J., Downie, I.S., Risely, K. & Robinson, R.A. (2010) Breeding Birds in the Wider Countryside: their conservation status 2010. BTO Research Report No. 565. British Trust for Ornithology.  (Date Accessed: May 17, 2013.) http://www.bto.org/birdtrends

Carter, N. (2005) Why European Starlings Are A Perennial Problem: History And Biology Of European Starlings In North America. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food. (Date of Access: May 12, 2014.)http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/hort/news/tenderfr/tf0905a6. html.

Ehrlich, P.R., Dobkin, D.S., & Wheye, D. (1988) European Starlings. (Date Accessed: May 12, 2013)http://www.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/European_Starl ings.html.

Gup, T. (1990) 100 Years of the Starling. New York Times. (May 12, 2013)http://www.nytimes.com/1990/09/01/opinion/100-years-of-the-s starling.html?src=pm.

Holmes, J.  (2006) The flock of starlings acting as a swarm.  Geograph.  (Date of Access: May 17, 2013.)  http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/124593

Ecology

Starlings are cavity nesters, as seen in Figure 1 below, and compete with native species such as woodpeckers, bluebird and swallows for nesting spots (Humane Society 2013).  Male starlings can be particularly aggressive, even going so far as to peck holes in the eggs laid by other birds, remove their nesting materials, kill their young, and build a nest on top of another nest with eggs in it (Link 2013).  Furthermore, starlings do not migrate for the winter and therefore get a head start on searching for appropriate nesting sites (Link 2013).  Deforestation exacerbates the problem of the eviction of native species as it decreases the number of nesting spots for cavity nesters (Link 2013).  It is believed that starlings are causing the decline of the sapsucker, the red-bellied woodpecker, and other birds (Johnson et al. 2009).

Figure 1.  Starling (on right) fighting off a bird whose nest it has stolen.  (Pooja 2011)

Starling droppings are phytotoxic and may also transmit diseases dangerous to humans, such as salmonella, histoplasmosis, and transmissible gastroenteritis virus (Level 2011).  Because they travel in such large groups—up to 10,000 birds—the accumulation of their droppings, which can reach a depth of 1 ft, can cause serious health problems (Level 2011).

Starlings are classified as a pest bird and are therefore exempt from the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 (Link 2013).  They are one of the very few birds that PETA does not protect from extermination, provided the methods used are ethical (PETA 2013).  No permit is required to remove and/or destroy their eggs, nest, young, or adults (Link 2013).  Excessive measures are taken to rid human dwellings of these foreign pests.

Works Cited:

Conversation with PETA representative.  May 14, 2013.  757-622-7382.  http://www.peta.org/about/contact-peta/default.aspx

The Humane Society of the United States. (2009)  What to Do About Starlings.  (Date Accessed: May 12, 2013.)  http://www.humanesociety.org/animals/starlings/tips/solving_problems_starlings.html

Johnson, S. & Givens, W.  (2009)  Florida’s Introduced Birds: Starlings (Sturnus Vulgaris).  EDIS, University of Florida.  (Date Accessed: May 12, 2013.)  http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw300

Level, A.  (2011)  European Starlings.  Wildlife Damage Management, Colorado State University.  (Date Accessed: May 12, 2013.) http://lib.colostate.edu/research/agnic/starlings.html

Link, R.  (2013)  Starlings.  Living with Wildlife, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife.  (Date Accessed: May 12, 2013.)  http://wdfw.wa.gov/living/starlings.html

Pooja.  (2011)  Birds Kung Fu Fight.  Admanya.  (Date Accessed: May 22, 2013.)  http://consumer.admanya.com/photoblog/birds_in_kung_fu_fight-2168.html

Perspective: Farmers

Starling infestations plague both produce and livestock-raising farmers alike.  Given their preference for areas with wide-open fields and easy access to food supplies, starlings often live in or close by farms, especially near their food stockpiles (Johnson & Glahn 1994).  Despite their tiny size, starlings can eat up to one ounce of food daily—a third of their overall weight (Pimental et al. 2011).  This appetite, combined with the enormous size of starling roosts and their nearly indiscriminate diet, can hugely diminish the quantity and quality of crops produced on afflicted farms.  Starlings feed on various fruit crops such as cherries, peaches, figs, blueberries, apples, strawberries, and grapes which negatively impacts the quantity and quality of the crops produced on the effected farms (Johnson & Glahn 1994).  Also, starlings have recently been reported damaging ripening corn at the corn’s milk stage, and in some areas, starlings have been known to pull sprouting grains such as winter wheat causing even more costly damages for produce farmers (Johnson & Glahn 1994).

Figure 1.  Starlings eating cow feed.  (DAF 2007)

Starlings are harmful to livestock farming.  Though the starling’s role in the transmission of diseases is not fully understood.  Furthermore, on livestock farms, starlings consume vast quantities of animal feed, as shown in Figure 1, leaving the animals with empty stomachs and the farmers with empty wallets.  The starlings’ droppings destroy even more livestock feed and may transfer transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGE) to swine (Pimental et al. 2011) (Johnson & Glahn 1994). 

Works Cited:

Department of Agriculture and Food.  (2007)  Starling Updates.  Government of Western Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food.  (Date Accessed: May 17, 2013.) http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/PC_93049.html

Johnson, R, & Glahn, J.  (1994)  European Starlings and Their Control.  Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management.  (Date Accessed: May 13, 2013.)  http://icwdm.org/handbook/birds/EuropeanStarlings.asp

Lynch, J, & Messmer, T.  (2010)  European Starlings.  Wildlife Damage Management Series.  Utah State University Cooperative Extension.  (Date Accessed: May 13, 2013.)  http://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/publication/nr_wd_011.pdf

Pimental, D., Lach, L., Zuniga R., & Morrison, D.  (2011)  European Starlings.  Wildlife Damage Management.  USDA Wildlife Services: National Wildlife Research Center.  (Date Accessed: May 13, 2013.)  http://lib.colostate.edu/research/agnic/starlings.html

Perspective: Department of Transportation/Airport Authorities

Starlings are a constant problem for airport authorities and the department of transportation because they pose an aircraft safety hazard.  Airborne starlings may get sucked into the jet engines of a plane, causing significant damage to the aircraft and possibly human causalities if they stray too close to the engines as shown in Figure 1 (Johnson & Glahn 1994).  On October 4, 1960, a commercial plane on Eastern Airlines flight 375 leaving from Logan International Airport in Boston, Massachusetts crashed shortly after encountering a large flock of starlings (Celebrate Boston 2013).  Sixty-two of the seventy-two people on board were killed, and nine of the ten survivors were severely injured (Celebrate Boston 2013).  The Eastern Airlines crash shows starlings pose an imminent threat to aircraft safety and the safety of passengers.  Roosts near airports must be avoided in order to ensure the safety of passengers and to avoid extensive aircraft damage.

Figure 1.  Starlings crowding jet engines.  (Mail Foreign Service 2009)

Works Cited:

Johnson, R, & Glahn, J.  (1994)  European Starlings and Their Control.  Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management.  (Date Accessed: May 13, 2013.)  http://icwdm.org/handbook/birds/EuropeanStarlings.asp

Logan Airport Electra Crash, the Worst Bird Strike in History.  (2013)  Worst Bird Strike, 1960.  Celebrate Boston.  (Date Accessed: May 13, 2013.)   http://www.celebrateboston.com/disasters/logan-electra-bird-strike-1960.htm

Mail Foreign Service.  (2009)  Bird strike! The moment 200 starlings were sucked into passenger jet engine on take-off.  Mail Online.  (Date Accessed: May 17, 2013.)  http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1217035/Bird-strike-The-moment-200-starlings-sucked-passenger-jet-engine-off.html

Perspective: Average Person

Figure 1.  (Adams 2009)

The abundance of starlings near human homes poses a nuisance and a health concern.  Although they pose greater threats to livestock, starlings are a sanitation issue in urban areas in which humans reside.  Six viral diseases, five bacterial diseases, four protozoan diseases, and two fungal diseases can be transmitted from starlings to humans and other animals (Lynch & Messmer 2010).  Histoplasmosis, which can be contracted by breathing in fungal spores in the air from starling droppings, is a particular problem for humans (Lynch & Messmer 2010).  It can cause blindness and even death in severe cases such as those found in third world countries and in AIDs patients because of their suppressed immune system (Lynch & Messmer 2010).

Starling roosting habits cause further health concerns for humans.  They often roost in high-rise buildings, industrial structures, and trees near homes in both urban and rural settings.  Their distracting cries which mimic the calls of other bird species and could potentially distract humans constructing buildings and the accumulation of their acidic, metal-corroding feces are particularly destructive and dangerous in industrial structures aside from being a nuisance(Lynch & Messmer 2010). 

Works Cited:

Adams, C.  (2009)  Flocks of starlings infiltrating urban areas across U.S. Shakespeare to blame.  Examiner.  (Date Accessed: May 17, 2013.)  http://www.examiner.com/article/flocks-of-starlings-infiltrating-urban-areas-across-u-s-shakespeare-to-blame-photos

Lynch, J, & Messmer, T.  (2010)  European Starlings.  Wildlife Damage Management Series.  Utah State University Cooperative Extension.  (Date Accessed: May 13, 2013.)  http://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/publication/nr_wd_011.pdf

Perspective: Ornithologist

Ornithologists, scientists who study birds, greatly value diversity among their various avian subjects.  Starlings destroy this diversity by aggressively expropriating resources that would otherwise go to native bird species.  The starlings compete fiercely for nesting cavities with natives such as bluebirds, woodpeckers, flickers, purple martins, and wood ducks, overthrowing them and often killing their eggs and young and/or murdering the nest maker (Johnson & Glahn 1994).  Starling presence has substantial impact on local cavity-nesting populations when nesting sites are made scarce (Johnson & Glahn 1994).  In fact, there is speculation that red-bellied woodpecker’s habitat may shift to more rural forested areas so as to avoid competing with the destructive starlings for urban nesting sites (Johnson & Glahn 1994). 

Figure 1.  Starling competing with red-bellied woodpecker for a spot at a bird feeder.  (Bo 2010.)

Starling ferocity at bird feeders keeps small birds as shown in Figure 1, which are often less able to fend for themselves and collect food elsewhere, from the feeders.  The starlings quickly exhaust birdseed supplies intended for smaller species even though starlings’ diet includes a very large variety of food types such as insects, fruits, seeds, grain, and even food waste from garbage cans (Johnson & Glahn 1994).  They seize not only local species’ homes and sometimes lives, but also, their food. 

Works Cited:

Bo, M. (2010)  Red-bellied Woodpecker vs. Starling.  Panaramio.  (Date Accessed: May 17, 2013.)  http://www.panoramio.com/photo/44196600

Johnson, R, & Glahn, J.  (1994)  European Starlings and Their Control.  Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management.  (Date Accessed: May 13, 2013.)  http://icwdm.org/handbook/birds/EuropeanStarlings.asp

Lynch, J, & Messmer, T.  (2010)  European Starlings.  Wildlife Damage Management Series.  Utah State University Cooperative Extension.  (Date Accessed: May 13, 2013.)  http://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/publication/nr_wd_011.pdf

Pests and Predators, Birding Basics.  (2011)  Dealing with Predators and Pests in Your Yard.  Birding Basics: Problems.  The Cornell Lab of Ornithology.  (Date Accessed: May 13, 2013.)  http://www.allaboutbirds.org/Page.aspx?pid=1185#top

Perspective: Arborist

(Starling Control 2013)

Arborists whose primary concern is the health of the trees, join the majority in the common desire to decrease starling populations. Starlings harm all trees.  They form communal roosts of up to 10,000 birds in high locations (Pimental et al. 2011).  The immense weight of such a large quantity of the otherwise relatively small birds causes obvious problems to trees in which the starlings make their large roosts, such as breaking small branches and new shoots, and causing disfiguration and stress on the trees (Pimental et al. 2011).  Also, the accumulation of the droppings produced by such a large quantity of starlings may surpass depths of twelve inches (Pimental et al. 2011).  These droppings are phytotoxic, and in these large quantities, the droppings can kill mature trees (Pimental et al. 2011).  Although starlings must roost in trees to survive, they damage trees by doing so.

Works Cited:

Pimental, D., Lach, L., Zuniga R., & Morrison, D.  (2011)  European Starlings.  Wildlife Damage Management.  USDA Wildlife Services: National Wildlife Research Center.  (Date Accessed: May 13, 2013.)  http://lib.colostate.edu/research/agnic/starlings.html

Starling Control.  (2013)  Bird Control: Trapping, Removal, and Damage Protection.  Starling Control.  United Wildlife Control.  (Date Accessed: May 17, 2013.)  http://www.unitedwildlife.com/AnimalsStarlings.html

Perspective: Massachusetts Autobon Society Video

Christopher Leahy, chair of the Massachusetts Audubon Society, presents a balanced inspection of the pros and cons of starlings.

Solutions: Overview

As one can imagine, the partial, if not total, removal of invader starlings is highly sought after.  The most popular solutions to starling problems are exclusion methods, toxicants and repellents, frightening mechanisms, trapping, and shooting. However, many of these are more of a hassle than the starlings themselves and are therefore not recommended. Since the absolute removal of these birds has become an impossible feat, the control methods should be concentrated on specific areas where the most damage is caused or near the edge of their territory to prevent spreading (Adeney 2001). Depending on the overall goal, any of these solutions might work.  However, one must be sure to carefully assess your individual situation before embarking on any sort of campaign against the starlings.  Above all, be humane!

(Starling Stoppers 2013)

Works Cited:

Adeney, J. M. (2001) European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Invasion Biology Introduced Species Summary Project. Columbia University. (Date Accessed: May 11, 2013.) http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Sturnus_vulgaris.html

Starling Stoppers. (2013) Got Starlings? Idaho Starling Stoppers LLC. Idaho Starling Stoppers. (Date Accessed: May 17, 2013). http://www.starlingstoppers.com/ 

Solution: Exclusion Methods

Excluding starlings from an area or location seems simple enough, yet it will not decrease the population of the species as a whole. Perhaps the starlings will move on to a different location if they cannot settle in your area, but chances are they will find trees nearby and congregate in large numbers called roosts (Johnson et al. 2005). Therefore, exclusions methods are most helpful in livestock facilities or urban areas where the presence of starlings can violate health and sanitation regulations.

Starlings can be excluded through the use of heavy plastic or rubber strips over any openings, as seen in figure 1 below, netting over doorways and windows, and "bird-proof" facilities such as flip-top feeders, lick wheels, and automatic-release feeders like the one seen in figure 2 (Johnson et al. 2005).  Keeping the starlings away from the crops will greatly decrease the food loss, spread of disease, and cost of any other control methods (Johnson et al. 2005). For the most effective results, focus on specific areas that are receiving the most damage since complete exclusion from any territory is impractical (Johnson et al.
2005).

Figure 1. Heavy plastic and rubber strips hang down to prevent starling entry to buildings. (Johnson et al. 2005).

Figure 2. Grain storing facilities with closed openings exclude starlings from entering and feeding on the grain. (Johnson et al. 2005).

Though this method will not decrease the population of starlings in any significant way, it can force the birds to relocate without leaving any damage behind. However, if this tactic is employed during the winter months, the decrease of sanctuary locations may cause the starlings to suffer from exposure to winter conditions and die (Schuster 2010).  Additional control methods employed immediately after exclusion may lead to a more significant decrease in the starling population.



Works Cited:

Johnson, R. J. & Glahn, J.F. (2005) European Starlings and Their Control. Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. Cornell University, Clemson University, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, and Utah State University. (Date Accessed: May 11, 2013.) http://icwdm.org/handbook/birds/EuropeanStarlings.asp 

Schuster, J. (2010) European Starlings: Population Control Methods. Wild Wing. Wild Wing Company (Date Accessed: May 11, 2013.) http://www.wildwingco.com/starlings.html 

Solution: Extermination

Repelling and poisoning methods are the most successful when focused on roost control, the regulation of large quantities of starlings in one nesting location. Though this method will wipe out large populations very quickly (over the course of about 3 days with most toxins), it can be dangerous to both wild and urban ecosystems. Starlicide Compete is a chemical compound developed at the Denver Wildlife Research center that kills not only starlings, but also other bird species (Adeney 2001). Starlicide loses its potency if stored for too long and can be a potential waste of money (Adeney 2001).

Roost control may kill large quantities at a time, but carcass control, as seen in figure 1, is a concern in many urban locations. The massive amounts of bodies that accumulate threaten humans due to the histoplasmosis spores that come from the carcasses (Adeney 2001).  The potential harm caused by this method to another species of bird or an entire ecosystem may outweigh the benefits of wiping out large populations of starlings. The success of this solution greatly relies on individual circumstances and the maintenance of the location thereafter.

 

Figure 1. Carcasses of dead starlings must be remove from streets and yards. (Johsson 2010). 

Due to the sheer number of starling in any given roost, shooting (though satisfying) is not an effective control (Schuster 2010). People often use any range of small pellet guns (such as the one in Figure 2) to shotguns (Schuster 2010). However, shooting used as a startling mechanism can frighten roosts into scattering and relocating (Schuster 2010).

Figure 2. Pellets as small as .22 caliber can kill starlings from a long range, but only one at a time. (Mitchell 2009).

Works Cited:

Adeney, J. M. (2001) European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Invasion Biology Introduced Species Summary Project. Columbia University. (Date Accessed: May 11, 2013.) http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Sturnus_vulgaris.html

Patrik Johsson. (2010) Bye Bye Blackbird: USDA acknowledges a hand in one mass bird death. The Christian Science Monitor. (Date Accessed: May 17, 2013). http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2011/0120/Bye-Bye-Blackbird-USDA-acknowledges-a-hand-in-one-mass-bird-death 

Randy Mitchell. (2009) New .22 Caliber Pellets from Tech Force. Pneumatic Pnews. Compasseco Inc. (Date Accessed: May 17, 2013). http://www.compasseco.com/blog/2009_03_01_archive.html

Schuster, J. (2010) European Starlings: Population Control Methods. Wild Wing. Wild Wing Company (Date Accessed: May 11, 2013.) http://www.wildwingco.com/starlings.html

Solution: Frightening Mechanisms

Frightening methods are more a matter of relocating starlings than killing them. Frightening the birds will scatter the roosts and diminish the territorial damage brought about by such high concentrations of pests.  Unfortunately, starlings acclimate quickly, so the frightening mechanisms must be effective in the first few attempts. Though some believe that ultrasonic noises scare away starlings, the birds, like humans, cannot hear above 20 kHz, so this will accomplish nothing (Johnson et al. 2005). The most successful are alarm calls as seen in Figure 5, pyrotechnics, chemical agents, bright lights, and reflective tape (Johnson et al. 2005).  Pre-recorded distress calls of other starlings can be alarming enough to encourage roosts to move on. Lastly, bright lights and reflective tape will make any location seem unwelcoming and encourage the birds to pass it by (Johnson et al. 2005). 

Figure 5. Starling roosts are scattered by loud calls through the streets of Rome. (The Hindu 2012). 

Works Cited:

The Hindu. (2012) Frightening away Rome's starlings. Today's Paper - In School. The Hindu. (Date Accessed: May 17, 2013). http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-in-school/frightening-away-romes-starlings/article4109704.ece?css=print

Johnson, R. J. & Glahn, J.F. (2005) European Starlings and Their Control. Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. Cornell University, Clemson University, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, and Utah State University. (Date Accessed: May 11, 2013.) http://icwdm.org/handbook/birds/EuropeanStarlings.asp

Solution: Trapping

Although tedious, trapping allows for the humane euthanization of starlings in moderate quantities. Trapping requires some maintenance and may be viewed as a hassle, but is has much fewer drawbacks than some other control methods such as repelling, frightening, or excluding.

Decoy traps like the one seen in Figure 1 below are easy and cheap to construct and can trap multiple birds at a time.  Previously caught birds remain in the trap, attracting others, and expediting the process (Johnson et al. 2005). In addition, in harsh weather conditions, the starlings will be easily tricked into finding sanctuary in the traps (Schuster 2010). With a little time and effort, pest populations may decrease by a large margin.

Figure 1. A decoy trap will lure starlings in and allow for humane euthanizing and a decrease in population. (Johnson et al. 2005). 

Works Cited:

Johnson, R. J. & Glahn, J.F. (2005) European Starlings and Their Control. Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. Cornell University, Clemson University, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, and Utah State University. (Date Accessed: May 11, 2013.) http://icwdm.org/handbook/birds/EuropeanStarlings.asp 

Schuster, J. (2010) European Starlings: Population Control Methods. Wild Wing. Wild Wing Company (Date Accessed: May 11, 2013.) http://www.wildwingco.com/starlings.html 

 

Solution: Vancouver Wildlife Video

A short video description of one method of humane starling removal.

Related Links

http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Sturnus_vulgaris.html

A brief overview of starlings and their role in the U.S.

http://icwdm.org/handbook/birds/EuropeanStarlings.asp 

Information about the starling species and detailed control method instructions.

http://lib.colostate.edu/research/agnic/starlings.html

A look into starlings as an invasive species in the U.S., including economic considerations and estimated costs of starling-induced damages.

http://www.humanesociety.org/animals/starlings/tips/solving_problems_starlings.html 

Comprehensive advice on preventing and/or dealing with starling nests.